Interspecific interactions can mediate site occupancy of sympatric species and can be a key factor in habitat use patterns. American martens (Martes americana) and Fishers (Pekania pennanti) are two sympatric mesocarnivores in eastern North American forests. Due to their larger size, fishers have a competitive advantage over martens. We investigated site occupancy of martens and fishers in temperate deciduous forests of Québec, an environment modified by forest management and climate change. We formulated hypotheses on the spatial distribution of the studied species based on the knowledge of local trappers and on the scientific literature regarding forest cover composition, habitat fragmentation, and competitive relationships. We used a network of 49 camera traps monitored over two fall seasons to document site occupancy by both species. We used two-species site occupancy models to assess habitat use and the influence of fishers on martens at spatial grains of different sizes. None of the habitat variables that we considered explained site occupancy by fishers. Availability of dense old coniferous stands explained the spatial distribution of martens both at the home range grain size and at the landscape grain size. We identified the characteristics of habitat hotspots based on the knowledge of trappers, which highlighted the importance of stand composition, height, age, and canopy closure. The characteristics of habitat hotspots for martens in temperate deciduous forests refine the habitat suitability model for American martens that was originally developed for boreal forests of Québec.

Since the mid?twentieth century, fisher populations (Pekania pennanti) increased in several eastern jurisdictions of North America, particularly in the northern part of the species’ range. Changes in fisher distribution have led to increased overlap with the southern portion of the range of American marten (Martes americana), whose populations may be locally declining. This overlap occurs particularly in habitats undergoing natural and anthropogenic modification. The objective of our study was to determine the respective effects of habitat changes and climatic conditions on fisher and marten populations in Quebec, Canada, based on trapper knowledge. We analyzed annual fisher and marten harvest (number of pelts sold/100?km2) between the 1984–1985 and 2014–2015 trapping seasons using linear mixed models. Fisher harvest increased with the increased abundance of mixed forests >12?m tall, resulting from decades of forest harvesting. Fisher harvest decreased with increasing spring rains, which can affect survival when rearing young. Marten harvest decreased with increasing winter rains, which lower thermoregulation capacity and hamper movements by creating an ice crust on the snowpack, reducing access to subnivean areas. Decline in marten harvest during the 30?year study period coincided with an increase in fisher harvest, suggesting possible interspecific competition. Results highlight that managers should strive to maintain mixedwood stands taller than 12?m to maintain high quality habitat for fishers. Our study confirms the importance of working with trappers to assess furbearing population trends in response to habitat changes and climatic conditions. © 2019 The Wildlife Society.

Background
Monitoring of fur-bearing species populations is relatively rare due to their low densities. In addition to catch data, trappers' experience provides information on the ecology and status of the harvested species. Fisher (Pekania pennanti) and American marten (Martes americana) are mustelids that are sensitive to forest management and therefore considered to be ecological indicators of forest health. Fisher populations have increased in eastern North America since the early 2000s and this could have resulted in a northeastern extension of the species' range and increased overlap with marten's range. Moreover, habitats of both species are subject to natural and anthropogenic disturbances. The objective of this study was to document the knowledge held by local trappers in the northern area of sympatry between fisher and marten to identify factors that could explain variation in populations of the two species and interactions between them.

Method
Forty-one semi-directed interviews with Indigenous and non-Indigenous trappers in the Abitibi-Témiscamingue region of western Quebec (Canada), at the northern limit of the overlapping ranges of the two mustelid species.

Results
Trappers highlighted the lack of exclusivity of marten and fisher to coniferous forests, although marten is more closely associated with them than is fisher. Fisher apparently also takes advantage of open environments, including agroforestry systems. Moreover, climate change increases the frequency of freeze-thaw events that cause the formation of an ice crust on the snow surface, which favors fisher movements.

Conclusion
The fisher was identified as a competitor and even a predator of the marten. Furthermore, the fisher is less affected than the marten by forest management, and it also seems to benefit from climate change to a greater extent.

In Fennoscandia, red-backed vole populations (Myodes spp.) often show regular fluctuations of abundance of 3- to 5-year periods. In contrast, only a few populations show evidence of cyclic fluctuations in North America. From 2001 to 2009, we livetrapped southern red-backed voles (Myodes gapperi) in 3 mature jack pine and 3 mature black spruce forest stands in the Muskuchii hills region, Quebec, Canada. We found that their density fluctuated (up to 41-fold) with a cyclical pattern and 4-year periods. Our study is the first to demonstrate cyclic dynamics in a southern red-backed vole population found in the boreal forest of North America. Regular pulse of food or heavy predation may be responsible for the fluctuations of southern red-backed voles. Furthermore, vole cycles may help elucidate the factors driving the irruptions of owls in the boreal forest.

Effects of habitat loss and fragmentation on the behavior of individual organisms may have direct consequences on population viability in altered forest ecosystems. The American marten (Martes americana) is a forest specialist considered as one of the most sensitive species to human-induced disturbances. As some studies have shown that martens cannot tolerate

Cette thèse a été rédigée sous la forme d'articles scientifiques en anglais et comporte une introduction et une conclusion générales rédigées en français. Conformément aux exigences du Doctorat en Sciences de l'environnement de l'Université du Québec en Abitibi- Témiscaminque (UQAT), j'ai procédé à la récolte des données, à l'analyse des résultats et à la rédaction des articles à titre de première auteure. Le premier chapitre intitulé « Remnant habitat use by American marten in managed landscapes of the eastern boreal forest of Canada suggests tolerance to habitat loss and fragmentation » a été soumis à Biological Conservation (juillet 2010). Le deuxième chapitre, intitulé « Marten space use and habitat selection in managed coniferous boreal forests of eastern Canada » a été soumis à Journal of Wildlife Management (juillet 2010). Dans ces deux cas, mes trois directeurs (Louis Imbeau, Pierre Drapeau et Louis Bélanger) en sont les coauteurs. Le troisième chapitre « American marten response to forest/clearcut edges and corridor use in the boreal forest of eastern Canada » a été soumis à Landscape Ecology (juillet 2010). Pour cet article, mes directeurs ainsi que le collaborateur André Desrochers, qui m'a encadré lors d'un stage dans son laboratoire, en seront les co-auteurs. Le quatrième chapitre « Building a common vision on American marten in integrating Cree knowledge and scientific findings in managed forests of northern Quebec » sera soumis à Canadian Journal of Native Studies. Là encore, mes trois directeurs en seront les co-auteurs.

En annexe, j'ai joint deux autres articles qui ont été publiés durant mon doctorat. Le premier est une adaptation de ma synthèse doctorale. Cet article intitulé « Current status and future directions of traditional ecological knowledge in forest management: a review » a été publié dans The Forestry Chronicle 84 (2) : 231-243 en 2008. Mes trois directeurs en sont les coauteurs. Le second article est le fruit d'une collaboration avec des médecins vétérinaires de la Faculté de Médecine Vétérinaire de l'Université de Montréal qui ont utilisé mes données de terrain sur l'anesthésie des martres et j'ai également révisé le manuscrit. Cet article intitulé « Field use of isoflurane as an inhalant anesthetic in the American marten (Martes americana) » a été publié dans Journal of Wildlife Diseases 43 (4) : 719-725 en 2007. Les coauteurs en sont Marion Desmarchelier, Stéphane Lair et Louis Imbeau.

Abstract:

In the last 25 years, the number of published studies that refer to traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) has constantly increased, with now more than 200 papers published each year. The objective of this review was to determine how this knowledge is used in current forest management around the world, and how local communities are involved in forest management planning. Published papers from 1983 to 2005 relating to TEK were found using the ISI Web of Science database. Despite the growing amount of literature published on TEK, we found only 21 studies that specifically address forest management per se. In these studies, TEK integration took different paths: using traditional management rules as a framework (five studies), using value maps to adapt practices in time and space (three studies), or by a zoning process that divides the land into areas in which different land uses are emphasized (six studies). Some community involvements are “active” with co-management committees composed of stakeholders (including community members), each having a voice; some are “passive” with external managers using criteria and indicators previously developed from community values and objectives. Although important changes in mentality and firm political decisions are still required before more efficient partnership between TEK and western science is reached in forest management planning, our review showed that Canadian initiatives proposed promising processes that could ensure better TEK incorporation and improved community participation.

Résumé:

Au cours des 25 dernières années, la quantité d’études traitant des savoirs écologiques traditionnels (SET) a constamment augmenté, atteignant maintenant plus de 200 publications par an. L’objectif de cette revue de littérature était de déterminer comment ces connaissances sont utilisées aujourd’hui pour l’aménagement forestier à travers le monde, et comment les populations locales sont impliquées dans la planification de l’aménagement forestier. Tous les articles traitant des SET, publiés entre 1983 et 2005, ont été extraits à partir de la base de données ISI Web of Science.Malgré l’abondance de littérature publiée sur les SET, seulement 30 études abordaient spécifiquement l’aménagement forestier comme tel. Dans ces études, l’intégration du SET pouvait prendre différentes avenues : s’inspirer des règles ancestrales de gestion (cinq études), adapter les pratiques dans le temps et l’espace en fonction des valeurs à priorizer (trois études), ou en divisant le territoire en zones à vocations différentes basées sur l’utilisation des terres (six études). L’engagement des communautés pouvait être « actif », à travers des comités de co-gestion composés des différents utilisateurs de la forêt (incluant des membres de la communauté), chacun ayant une voix ; ou « passif » lorsque des aménagistes extérieurs utilisaient des critères et indicateurs développés à partir des valeurs et objectifs de la communauté. Cependant, d’importants changements de mentalité et des décisions politiques fermes seront encore nécessaires avant de voir une participation entière des communautés et une incorporation effective des SET et de la science occidentale dans la planification forestière. Il semble, par ailleurs, que plusieurs initiatives canadiennes présentent des processus prometteurs pour s’assurer de l’incorporation des savoirs traditionnels et pour instaurer une gestion participative.

We evaluated the effectiveness and practicality of using isoflurane as an inhalation anesthetic with oxygen as a gas carrier for American martens (Martes americana) in a field setting. Sixty-eight martens were trapped in the Waswanipi Cree Model Forest (Que´bec, Canada) from October to November 2005 and anesthetized with isoflurane in 100%oxygen (1 l/min) using a face mask. Induction setting of isoflurane was 3% for all animals. Mean (6SD) length of induction was 1.861.2 min. Maintenance isoflurane settings ranged from 1% to 4%. Procedures lasted an average of 16.467.1 min and were uneventful. Length of recovery, defined as the interval between the end of the procedure and animal release, was short (6.362.8 min), and well below reported lengths of recovery using injectable anesthetics ($70 min). As compared to open drop administration of isoflurane described in previous studies, the use of an anesthesia machine prevents the risk of potential fatal anesthetic overdose. We conclude that among anesthesia techniques currently available, isoflurane with oxygen as a gas carrier is a safe and useful field anesthetic in martens, when issues with equipment portability can be overcome. © 2007 Wildlife Disease Association.

L'étude des connaissances traditionnelles est une discipline assez récente et encore controversée. En effet, le débat entourant leur validité pour l'application à des problèmes modernes d'aménagement des ressources freine la reconnaissance de leur utilité et de leur utilisation effective à l'intérieur de politiques de gestion. La science occidentale rechigne encore souvent à considérer ces connaissances, car elles sont incluses dans une éthique environnementale éco-centriste fondamentalement différente de l'éthique anthropocentriste dominante actuellement. Malgré cela, la collecte des connaissances traditionnelles pour divers usages est en expansion, utilisant des méthodes empruntées aux sciences sociales, aussi bien pour la collecte comme telle des connaissances, que pour la sélection des répondants et l'analyse des informations obtenues. Les entrevues semi-dirigées sont les plus fréquemment utilisées car elles se rapprochent d'une discussion informelle bien acceptée dans les différentes communautés. L'acceptation par la communauté et l'implication de celle-ci dans les études concernant les TEK sont une part essentielle de la réussite des projets entrepris, bien que peu rapportées dans la littérature. Une fois les connaissances traditionnelles récoltées, il est alors possible des les intégrer aux processus d'aménagement des ressources naturelles en s'inspirant des méthodes de gestion traditionnelles, en implantant un système de co-gestion ou encore via une gestion adaptative. Malgré la difficulté à faire ressortir des grandes tendances parmi l'extrême variabilité des contextes, un bilan d'études de cas traitant de l'intégration des TEK dans l'aménagement forestier fait ressortir les lacunes concernant les méthodologies employées, les difficultés à incorporer de façon effective les TEK dans les processus de planification et d'aménagement des forêts, et parfois le manque d'implication des communautés. Enfin, dans le cas d'un conflit entre les revendications des autochtones et l'exploitation commerciale de la forêt, trois processus ayant pour but d'améliorer la participation des communautés autochtones sont présentés. Ceux-ci visent à considérer les TEK dans leur entièreté, à dépasser des visions du monde très différentes et à donner un poids égal aux différents intervenants. Ils proposent en général d'établir en premier lieu des cartes d'occupation et d'utilisation traditionnelle du territoire ou de valeurs à prioriser, pour ensuite proposer un zonage avec des secteurs à vocation différente, respectant ainsi une vision multi-usages de la forêt. Cependant, il reste encore beaucoup à faire avant de voir une incorporation réelle des connaissances traditionnelles à l'aménagement des forêts. © 2006 UQAM tous droits réservés.

Contrary to what is observed in Fennoscandia, it seems to be widely accepted that small mammals do not exhibit multi-annual population cycles in the boreal forest of North America. However, in the last thirty years, irruptions of vole predators such as owls have been reported by ornithologists south of the North American boreal forest. While such southerly irruptions have been associated in Fennoscandia with periods of low abundance of small mammals within their usual distribution range, their possible cyclic nature and their relationships to fluctuations in vole densities at northern latitudes has not yet been demonstrated in North America. With information collected from existing databases, we examined the presence of cycles in small mammals and their main avian predators by using temporal autocorrelation analyses. Winter invasions of boreal owls (Aegolius funereus) were periodic, with a 4-yr cycle in Québec. Populations of one species of small mammal, the red-backed vole (Clethrionomys gapperi), fluctuated periodically in boreal forests of Québec (north to 48^°N). Boreal owls show invasion cycles which correspond to years of low density of red-backed voles, the main food item for this owl species. In addition, winter observations of northern hawk owls (Surnia ulula) and great gray owls (Strix nebulosa) south of their usual range increased in years of low density of red-backed voles. Our results suggest that a 4-yr population cycle exists in the eastern boreal forest of North America for voles and owls, which is very similar to the one observed in Fennoscandia.